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Influenza Epidemic/ Pandemic
Topic Collection
October 17, 2024

Topic Collection: Influenza Epidemic/ Pandemic

In 2009, the world watched as the pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus circulated the globe. Many emergency departments, clinics, and physician offices were filled with symptomatic patients and the “worried well” as public health and emergency management agencies modified plans to respond to the evolving pandemic by delivering risk communications to the public, establishing mass vaccination clinics, and distributing personal protective equipment (PPE) and other supplies to protect worker safety. Since that time, the healthcare system has been incorporating lessons learned from the 2009 H1N1 response into continued pandemic influenza planning efforts. New technology in detection, advances in treatment, improved PPE and containment equipment, updated protocols on how to deal with highly infectious diseases, and experience responding to seasonal influenza outbreaks and other large-scale infectious disease outbreaks have all contributed to a more robust capability to respond to the next pandemic. The threats have also grown – an increasing number of novel influenza viruses have demonstrated the ability to occasionally infect humans. The resources included in this Topic Collection can help healthcare professionals and emergency medical planners prepare for the next influenza epidemic or pandemic. It is important to note how important strong healthcare coalitions with tiered response strategies and coordinated incident management are to an effective pandemic influenza response.

ASPR TRACIE has developed several additional Topic Collections with content relevant to specific aspects of epidemic and pandemic influenza planning; they are listed below.

Alternate Care Sites

Crisis Standards of Care

Disaster Ethics

Fatality Management

Healthcare-Related Disaster Legal/Regulatory/Federal Policy

Hospital Surge Capacity and Immediate Bed Availability

Mass Distribution and Dispensing of Medical Countermeasures

Responder Safety and Health

Virtual Medical Care

Each resource in this Topic Collection is placed into one or more of the following categories (click on the category name to be taken directly to that set of resources). Resources marked with an asterisk (*) appear in more than one category.

Must Reads

American Academy of Family Physicians. (2015). Pandemic Influenza - Clinical Considerations.

This document provides an overview of clinical considerations for pandemic influenza, including sections on immunization, surveillance, reporting, prevention, diagnosis, testing indications and types, treatment, and isolation and quarantine. It also includes information on limiting transmission when managing patients at home.

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Appiah, G., Chaves, S., Kirley, P., et al. (2017). Increased Antiviral Treatment Among Hospitalized Children and Adults with Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza, 2010-2015. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 64(3):364-367.

The authors analyzed surveillance data of hospitalized patients from the 2010-11 through the 2014-15 influenza seasons to determine the use of antiviral treatment. They found that antiviral treatment of hospitalized influenza patients increased from 72% in the 2010-11 season to 89% in the 2014-15 season. They also found that 45% of patients admitted within two days of illness onset, when the clinical benefit of antiviral treatment is known to be greatest, did not receive antiviral treatment on their day of admission.

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ASPR TRACIE. (2019). Healthcare Coalition Influenza Pandemic Checklist. U.S Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response.

This planning tool is intended to assist healthcare coalitions (HCCs) and their partners in assessing their preparedness for an influenza pandemic. It may also be used to orient the response as a pandemic begins. This checklist can help HCCs assess, create, and improve their pandemic preparedness and response plans.

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ASPR TRACIE. (2024). EMS Infectious Disease Playbook.

This playbook (updated in 2023) synthesizes multiple sources of information in a single planning document addressing the full spectrum of infectious agents to create a concise reference resource for emergency medical services (EMS) agencies developing their service policies. The information can be incorporated into agency standard operating procedures and reviewed by the EMS medical director.

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Bridget Kanawati Thank you for your interest in this resource. Unfortunately, funding restrictions preclude our being able to provide printed versions of our resources so all of our products, including this one, are only available electronically. ASPR TRACIE Team
3/26/2020 2:12:42 PM
Frances Thorpe I agree with Tracy, is there a way to order this publication in hard copy format? The information contained in this publication highlights agency infection control policies and is a great resource to have in the department library.
3/26/2020 12:21:37 PM
Tracy Miller Is there any way to order a printed and bound version?
8/9/2018 5:16:09 PM

Bessesen, M., Adams, J., Radonovich, L., and Anderson, J. (2015). Disinfection of Reusable Elastomeric Respirators by Health Care Workers: A Feasibility Study and Development of Standard Operating Procedures. American Journal of Infection Control. 43(6): 629-634.

This article describes a Department of Veterans Affairs feasibility study on the ability of personnel to safely disinfect respirators under pandemic conditions by following standard operating procedures.

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Bui, C., Chughtai, A., Adam, D., and MacIntyre, C. (2017). An Overview of the Epidemiology and Emergence of Influenza A Infection in Humans Over Time. Archives of Public Health. 75:15.

The authors reviewed the epidemiology and emergence of all influenza A serotypes known to cause human infection. They found an increase in recent years in the emergence of avian influenza viruses causing infections in humans and suggest a variety of measures to prevent the emergence of zoonotic disease.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Influenza Risk Assessment Tool (IRAT). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This tool was developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other influenza experts to assess the risk of a human pandemic emerging from influenza A viruses currently circulating in animals. The IRAT uses 10 weighted evaluation criteria to assess the risk of both emergence and public health impact and to classify each virus as low, moderate, or high risk.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). How is Pandemic Flu Different from Seasonal Flu? U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage lists commonly-asked questions about influenza and contrasts answers for seasonal influenza with pandemic influenza.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). Isolation Precautions Guideline. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This document provides infection control guidelines for healthcare settings across the continuum of care. It is intended to inform the development, implementation, and evaluation of infection control and prevention programs in healthcare settings.

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Chest Care of the Critically Ill and Injured During Pandemics and Disasters Panel. (2014). Care of the Critically Ill and Injured During Pandemics and Disasters: Chest Consensus Statement. Chest Journal. 146(4), Supplement:p1S-41S, e1S-e177s.

This supplement to Chest Journal includes several articles composing a consensus statement of the American College of Chest Physicians on the care of the critically ill and injured during pandemics and disasters. Individual articles focus on the following: Introduction and Executive Summary; Methodology; Surge Capacity Principles; Surge Capacity Logistics; Evacuation of the ICU; Triage; Special Populations; System-Level Planning, Coordination, and Communication; Business and Continuity of Operations; Engagement and Education; Legal Preparedness; Ethical Considerations; and Infrastructure and Capacity Building and Response, Recovery, and Research in Resource-Poor Settings.

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Fain, B., Viswanathan, K., and Altevogt, B. (2012). Public Engagement on Facilitating Access to Antiviral Medications and Information in an Influenza Pandemic - Workshop Series Summary. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

This report summarizes a series of workshops on the public’s perception of how to facilitate access to antiviral medication and treatment during an influenza pandemic.

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Holloway, R., Rasmussen, S., Zaza, S., et al. (2014). Updated Preparedness and Response Framework for Influenza Pandemics. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 63(RR06):1-9.

This article describes the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s revised framework for pandemic influenza preparedness and response. The authors describe the six intervals along the pandemic curve and eight domains used to organize efforts within each interval.

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Infectious Diseases Society of America. (2016). ID-Focused Hospital Efficiency Improvement Program.

This guide for infectious disease physician executives identifies service lines and related metrics to mitigate infectious disease-related issues. The guide addresses four areas: infection prevention and control; antimicrobial stewardship; outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy hospital admission/readmission avoidance; and bio-security, bio-preparedness, and emerging infectious diseases.

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Kao, H., Ko, H., Guo, P., et al. (2017). Taiwan's Experience in Hospital Preparedness and Response for Emerging Infectious Diseases. Health Security. 15(2):175-184.

The authors describe Taiwan’s Communicable Disease Control Medical Network, which was established after the 2003 SARS outbreak, and discuss its performance during the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic and the West African Ebola outbreak. They discuss similarities with the tiered response system established in the U.S. for Ebola, identify strengths as the establishment of a command system with well-prepared hospitals and trained personnel, and note the challenges of maintaining funding, clarifying the role of local public health authorities, and incentivizing the participation of frontline clinical staff.

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Los Angeles County Emergency Medical Services Agency. (2010). Recommended Actions for Hospitals to Prepare for and Respond to Pandemic Influenza.

This document provides guidelines to hospitals to prepare for an influenza pandemic. It includes a summary of recommended actions and their triggers, checklists, sample response guides, general background information, and links to additional resources.

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New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. (n.d.). Mystery Patient Drill Toolkit. (Accessed 9/9/2024.)

This toolkit is intended for use by hospital emergency departments, and tests how long it takes for a potential patient with a highly infectious disease to be identified and for staff to begin exposure mitigation procedures; how long it takes for a patient to be transferred to an isolation room; and the capability of the facility to make notifications internally and to the health department. The Toolkit includes scenarios for Ebola Virus Disease, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, and Measles, but may be modified to suit healthcare facilities of any nature and any type of disease outbreak.

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Noah, D. and Noah, J. (2013). Adapting Global Influenza Management Strategies to Address Emerging Viruses. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 305(2):L108-L117.

The authors provide an overview of influenza and discuss epidemiology and surveillance, perspectives on vaccines and antivirals, and research opportunities related to universal vaccine, alternate vaccine production strategies, novel antiviral development, and continued transmission studies.

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2014). Protecting Workers During a Pandemic. U.S. Department of Labor.

This fact sheet provides guidance on workplace practices related to pandemic influenza.

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Qualls, N., Levitt, A., Kanade, N., et al. (2017). Community Mitigation Guidelines to Prevent Pandemic Influenza - United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 66(1):1-34.

These guidelines update Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommendations on the use of non-pharmaceutical interventions to slow the spread of infectious respiratory diseases, including influenza.

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Reed, C., Biggerstaff, M., Finelli, L., et al. (2013). Novel Framework for Assessing Epidemiologic Effects of Influenza Epidemics and Pandemics. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 19(1):85-91.

This article describes the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s framework for classifying pandemic severity. The authors describe the four-step process used to develop the framework and how it can be used for an initial assessment in the early stages of a pandemic and a refined assessment once additional data become available.

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Saunders-Hastings, P., and Krewski, D. (2016). Reviewing the History of Pandemic Influenza: Understanding Patterns of Emergence and Transmission. Pathogens. 5(4).

The authors review influenza pandemics throughout history to describe the changing knowledge of the virus and efforts to manage outbreaks. Given the unpredictable nature of when the next pandemic will occur, they encourage continued surveillance, coordination, and resource planning to mitigate risks.

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Smith, L., D'Antoni, D., Jain, V., et al. (2016). A Systematic Review of Factors Affecting Intended and Actual Adherence with Antiviral Medication as Treatment or Prophylaxis in Seasonal and Pandemic Flu. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses. 10(6):462-478.

The authors reviewed literature published through 2015 to identify factors influencing adherence to antivirals as prophylaxis or treatment for influenza, both seasonal and pandemic. The incidence of adverse side effects was the most common predictor of actual and intended adherence. Other predictive factors include knowledge about influenza risk factors, risk perceptions on the severity of and vulnerability to the outbreak, and beliefs about side effects or effectiveness of pharmaceuticals. These findings can inform both conversations between providers and individual patients and the development of public risk communication campaigns.

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Trust for America's Health. (2009). Pandemic Flu Preparedness: Lessons from the Frontlines.

This report examines early lessons learned by the healthcare system from the response to the 2009 H1N1 pandemic and highlights ongoing concerns about overall U.S. preparedness for potential outbreaks.

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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2017). Pandemic Influenza Plan: 2017 Update.

This updated plan builds upon the 2005 Pandemic Influenza Plan and its subsequent updates, focusing on the seven domains of: surveillance, epidemiology, and laboratory activities; community mitigation measures; medical countermeasures; health care system preparedness and response activities; communications and public outreach; scientific infrastructure and preparedness; and domestic and international response policy, incident management, and global partnerships and capacity building.

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World Health Organization. (2014). Infection Prevention and Control of Epidemic- and Pandemic-Prone Acute Respiratory Infections in Health Care: WHO Guidelines.

This document provides recommendations, best practices and principles for infection prevention and control for acute respiratory infections in health care, particularly those that present as epidemics or pandemics. It includes information on PPE and aerosol-generating procedures. There are also summaries of literature and research reviews on physical interventions for infection control; risk of transmission from aerosol-generating procedures; and effectiveness of vaccination of health care workers to protect patients.

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Antiviral Treatment

Appiah, G., Chaves, S., Kirley, P., et al. (2017). Increased Antiviral Treatment Among Hospitalized Children and Adults with Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza, 2010-2015. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 64(3):364-367.

The authors analyzed surveillance data of hospitalized patients from the 2010-11 through the 2014-15 influenza seasons to determine the use of antiviral treatment. They found that antiviral treatment of hospitalized influenza patients increased from 72% in the 2010-11 season to 89% in the 2014-15 season. They also found that 45% of patients admitted within two days of illness onset, when the clinical benefit of antiviral treatment is known to be greatest, did not receive antiviral treatment on their day of admission.

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* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Antiviral Agents for the Treatment and Chemoprophylaxis of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 60(RR01):1-24.

This report provides recommendations for treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza virus infection. The authors identify populations at greater risk of complications, identify major changes from previous recommendations, describe the mechanism of virus transmission and the clinical signs and symptoms of disease, outline the role of laboratory diagnostics, and provide information on the four approved influenza antiviral agents, including their usage, dosage, adverse events, drug interactions, and possible emergency use authorization.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Influenza Antiviral Medications: Summary for Clinicians. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This document provides information on antiviral medications recommended for treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza, summarizes influenza antiviral treatment recommendations, identifies treatment considerations for patients hospitalized with suspected or confirmed influenza, describes diagnostic testing for influenza, lists recommended dosage and duration of various antiviral agents for pediatric and adult populations, discusses chemoprophylaxis, and highlights special considerations.

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Dobson, J., Whitley, R., Pocock, S., and Monto, A. (2015). Oseltamivir Treatment for Influenza in Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. The Lancet. 385(9979):1729-1737.

The authors reviewed individual patient data from nine clinical trials comparing oseltamivir with a placebo as a treatment for seasonal influenza in adults. They found that oseltamivir reduced the time to symptom alleviation, the risk of lower respiratory tract complications, and risk of hospitalization, but increased the risk of nausea and vomiting.

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* Fain, B., Viswanathan, K., and Altevogt, B. (2012). Public Engagement on Facilitating Access to Antiviral Medications and Information in an Influenza Pandemic - Workshop Series Summary. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

This report summarizes a series of workshops on the public’s perception of how to facilitate access to antiviral medication and treatment during an influenza pandemic.

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Heneghan, C., Onakpoya, I., Jones, M., et al. (2016). Neuraminidase Inhibitors for Influenza: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Regulatory and Mortality Data. Health Technology Assessment. 20(42):1-242.

The authors reviewed regulatory information from 46 trials of oseltamivir and zanamivir for influenza in adults and children. They found that oseltamivir and zanamivir reduce the time to symptom improvement in adults with influenza-like illness. Neither oseltamivir nor zanamivir was found to reduce influenza complications, hospitalizations, or deaths. Oseltamivir increases the risk of nausea, vomiting, and psychiatric events in adults and vomiting in children, but may reduce the risk of diarrhea and cardiac events in adults. The authors found a minimal preventive effect of using oseltamivir or zanamivir as prophylaxis.

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Hurt, A. and Kelly, H. (2016). Debate Regarding Oseltamivir Use for Seasonal and Pandemic Influenza. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22(6):949-955.

The authors discuss the debate about whether oseltamivir should be stockpiled for an influenza pandemic based on its performance in the treatment of relatively mild illness during seasonal influenza outbreaks.

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Jefferson, T., Jones, M., Doshi, P., et al. (2014). Neuraminidase Inhibitors for Preventing and Treating Influenza in Adults and Children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.

The authors reviewed available data from randomized, placebo-controlled trials on adults and children with confirmed or suspected exposure to naturally-occurring influenza to determine the effects of neuraminidase inhibitors. They found that two commonly-stockpiled neuraminidase inhibitors – oseltamivir and zanamivir – reduce the time to alleviation of symptoms in adults and that prophylactic use of either drug reduces the risk of developing symptomatic influenza. Neither drug reduced the time to alleviation of symptoms in asthmatic children, and oseltamivir use increased the risk of nausea, vomiting, psychiatric effects, and renal events in adults and vomiting in children.

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Lehnert, R., Pletz, M., Reuss, A., and Schaberg, T. (2016). Antiviral Medications in Seasonal and Pandemic Influenza. Deutsches Arzteblatt International. 113(47):799-807.

This systematic review of randomized and controlled trials and other relevant literature concludes that the benefits of antiviral drugs outweigh their risks. The article summarizes existing public health recommendations and examines research on antiviral prophylaxis and treatment. The authors encourage clinicians to consider the risk profile of patients in some at-risk populations and note the need for additional research on those populations and on the use of antivirals for highly pathogenic influenza viruses.

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Smith, L., D'Antoni, D., Jain, V., et al. (2016). A Systematic Review of Factors Affecting Intended and Actual Adherence with Antiviral Medication as Treatment or Prophylaxis in Seasonal and Pandemic Flu. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses. 10(6):462-478.

The authors reviewed literature published through 2015 to identify factors influencing adherence to antivirals as prophylaxis or treatment for influenza, both seasonal and pandemic. The incidence of adverse side effects was the most common predictor of actual and intended adherence. Other predictive factors include knowledge about influenza risk factors, risk perceptions on the severity of and vulnerability to the outbreak, and beliefs about side effects or effectiveness of pharmaceuticals. These findings can inform both conversations between providers and individual patients and the development of public risk communication campaigns.

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Wester, A. and Shetty, A. (2016). Peramivir Injection in the Treatment of Acute Influenza: A Review of the Literature. Infection and Drug Resistance. 9:201-214.

The authors review the literature on the use of peramivir for acute influenza treatment. They found that it is effective against a variety of influenza A and B subtypes and that its injectable form may be favorable for treating critically ill, hospitalized patients. While they found positive results in observational studies in pregnant women, pediatric patients, patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy, and patients undergoing extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, there is a lack of clinical trials demonstrating the efficacy of peramivir in these populations.

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Avian Influenza

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. (2024). Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) Detections in Livestock. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

This website contains information on highly pathogenic avian influenza, including the latest news and information for livestock producers and veterinarians, such as testing recommendations for cattle. It also includes biosecurity, CDC, and FDA resources and information on farm loans for agricultural producers to enact biosecurity measures (e.g., installing physical barriers, purchasing disinfectant, or veterinary costs).

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ASPR TRACIE. (2024). Avian Influenza Quick Facts.

This document provides healthcare providers and emergency planners with resource links to improve their readiness for potential human infections with avian influenza A viruses. Users should refer to the websites of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the World Health Organization (WHO) for the most up-to-date information.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus in Animals: Interim Recommendations for Prevention, Monitoring, and Public Health Investigations. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

These interim recommendations outline steps for preventing exposure to avian influenza viruses, including recommendations for the public, farmers, workers, clinicians, and state health departments on surveillance and testing. The webpage defines exposure to avian influenza-infected birds, clinical and public health response criteria, information on collecting clinical specimens for testing, influenza antiviral treatment, and avian influenza chemoprophylaxis.

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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2008). Biosecurity for Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza – Issues and Options.

This paper examines the state of knowledge of biosecurity in relation to highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 and presents issues and options for the domestic poultry and captive bird sectors.

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Fournie, G., Hog, E., Barnett, T., et al. (2017). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Practices Exposing Humans to Avian Influenza Viruses, Their Prevalence, and Rationale. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 97(2): 376-388.

The authors conducted a systematic literature review to identify practices associated with human infections of avian influenza, their prevalence, and rationale. They found that both direct and indirect exposure to poultry were associated with infection with all virus subtypes and all settings and that association with infection was stronger in markets than households, for sick and dead than healthy poultry, and for H7N9 than H5N1.

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Infectious Diseases Society of America.. (2017). Animal Influenza Viruses of Zoonotic Concern. (Abstract only.) The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 216(suppl_4).

The supplement contains a number of articles on avian and other animal influenza viruses of concern to humans.

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Jiang, H., Wu, P., Uyeki, T., et al. (2017). Preliminary Epidemiologic Assessment of Human Infections with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N6) Virus, China. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 64(3): 383-388.

The authors analyzed data on laboratory-confirmed Asian lineage HPAI H5N1, H5N6, and H7N9 and found that epidemiologic characteristics and severity of infections of A(H5N6) were similar to those of A(H5N1) and more severe than A(H7N9).

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Lai, S., Qin, Y., Cowling, B., et al. (2016). Global Epidemiology of Avian Influenza A H5N1 Virus Infection in Humans, 1997-2015: A Systematic Review of Individual Case Data. (Abstract only.) Lancet Infectious Diseases. 16(7):e108-e118.

This study examined 907 human cases of avian influenza A H5N1 from May 1997 to April 2015 to describe changes in global epidemiology. The authors describe an expansion in the number of affected countries from east and southeast Asia west through Asia to Africa. The authors noted a recent increase in cases in Egypt but found no significant differences in comparison to earlier cases in epidemiological factors such as fatality risk, history of patient contact or exposure to poultry, and time from illness onset to hospital admission.

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Li, Y., Linster, M., Mendenhall, I., et al. (2019). Avian Influenza Viruses in Humans: Lessons from Past Outbreaks. British Medical Bulletin. 132(1):81-95.

This article discusses clinical presentation of avian influenza infection, species barriers, susceptibility, and risk factors for human infection. It also contains information on zoonotic avian influenza A viruses, and details on specific subtypes. The authors discuss pandemic mitigation strategies such as close World Health Organization monitoring of select strains, vaccination, antiviral drugs, and the limitations of these measures.

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Liu, W., Xiao, H., Dai, L, et al. (2021). Avian Influenza A(H7N9) Virus: From Low Pathogenic to Highly Pathogenic. Frontiers in Medicine. 15(4):507-527.

This article discusses past epidemics of avian influenza A(H7N9) virus associated with live poultry markets, and Chinese officials’ efforts to respond quickly and control outbreaks. The authors review characteristics of the virus identified during these efforts, including molecular epidemiology, clinical aspects, virulence, pathogenesis, treatment, and vaccine development with the goal of decreasing the risks of H7N9 and other viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 in the future.

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Lycett, S., Duchatel, F., and Digard, P. (2019). A Brief History of Bird Flu. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 374(1775):20180257.

This article reviews what is known as of 2018 about avian influenza A and its genetic makeup, from its relationship with the 1918 H1N1 pandemic strain, to epidemics in birds, to zoonoses. The authors describe the virus’s origin, reassortment, and evolution of avian influenza. Finally, the article describes the ongoing risk to human health and how control in domestic bird populations can mitigate the risks.

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Pan American Health Organization and World Health Organization. (2020). Influenza at the Human-Animal Interface: PAHO Recommendations to Strengthen Intersectoral Work for Surveillance, Early Detection, and Investigation.

This document gives recommendations for influenza virus surveillance, monitoring, early detection, case investigation, and reporting when humans and animals interact. It distinguishes between animal influenza viruses which are not transmitted to or between humans, human seasonal influenza viruses, and zoonotic influenza viruses which can cause illness and death in humans. The document also discusses the reporting obligations under the International Health Regulations of 2005 for states party to them.

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Uyeki, T. and Peiris, M. (2019). Novel Avian Influenza A Virus Infections of Humans. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 33(4):907-932.

This article discusses symptoms of infection with avian influenza A viruses, characteristics of testing for influenza A virus, and clinical management of influenza A. It provides background on the epidemiology of avian influenza A, exposure risk factors, human-to-human transmission, and pathogenesis.

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World Health Organization. (2023). Public Health Resource Pack for Countries Experiencing Outbreaks of Influenza in Animals: Revised Guidance.

This document provides guidance for countries experiencing influenza outbreaks in animals, and incorporates information from the World Health Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and the World Organization for Animal Health. It includes sections on the role of the animal health sector, risk communication, messages on poultry culling, food and water safety, zoonotic influenza surveillance, and clinical management of suspected and confirmed cases.

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World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH). (2023). Avian Influenza.

This website contains information on the global impact of avian influenza on the poultry industry, farmers’ livelihoods, international trade, and the health of wild birds. It includes background on avian influenza, its transmission and spread among wild and domestic bird populations, and the public health risk posed by these viruses.

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Wu, X., Xiao, L., and Li, L. (2020). Research Progress on Human Infection with Avian Influenza H7N9. Frontiers of Medicine. 14(1):8-20.

This article examines the history of avian influenza H7N9, including five epidemics in China and the knowledge gained in 6 years of management of H7N9 on virus tracing, epidemiology, mutation monitoring, etiology of the disease, clinical management, and vaccine development.

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Education, Training, and Exercises

* ASPR TRACIE. (2021). Step-by-Step Guide to Implementing the Coalition Infectious Disease Annex TTX Template (PDF).

This guide is part of a toolkit that can help emergency planners create an interactive, discussion-based exercise focusing on impacts to healthcare coalition and healthcare facilities caused by large numbers of patients seeking healthcare following exposure to an infectious agent.

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Department of Emergency Health Services. (2018). Emerging Infectious Diseases Videos for Prehospital Providers. University of Maryland Baltimore County.

This instructional series, comprised of nine modules (listed at the top of the page), includes an introduction to infectious diseases, basic infection control concepts, considerations for personal protective equipment (including donning and doffing), personnel decontamination, patient transport, and transfer of patient care for patients with Ebola and other highly infectious diseases.

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Federal Emergency Management Agency, Center for Domestic Preparedness. (n.d.). Barrier Precautions and Controls for Highly Infectious Disease. (Accessed 9/30/19.)

This is a four-day course for emergency medical services, healthcare, and public health professionals who may triage, transport, and treat those with a highly infectious disease. Training includes guided discussions of best practices, demonstrations, practical experiences, and exercises.

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* Illinois Emergency Medical Services for Children. (2010). Use of Strategic National Stockpile [SNS] Ventilators in the Pediatric Patient: Instructional Guidelines with Training Scenarios, 2nd Edition (2010).

These guidelines are intended as a quick reference for just-in-time training and set up of the types of mechanical ventilators included in the Strategic National Stockpile. The guidelines may be used by clinicians with a baseline knowledge of pulmonary physiology and the concepts of ventilation, but who may not be familiar with the stockpiled ventilators or who may not routinely care for children on ventilators.

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Maunder, R., Lancee, W., Mae, R., et al. (2010). Computer-Assisted Resilience Training to Prepare Healthcare Workers for Pandemic Influenza: A Randomized Trial of the Optimal Dose of Training. BMC Health Services Research. 10:72.

The authors studied the feasibility and effectiveness of an interactive, computer-assisted training course designed to build resilience to the stresses of working during a pandemic. They measured confidence in support and training; pandemic-related self-efficacy; coping style; and interpersonal problems, before and after training, and found that the course was associated with improvement in each variable, with the “medium” duration course providing the greatest benefit. The course is free and may be accessed at https://www.msh-healthyminds.com/sv/.

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* New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. (n.d.). Mystery Patient Drill Toolkit. (Accessed 9/9/2024.)

This toolkit is intended for use by hospital emergency departments, and tests how long it takes for a potential patient with a highly infectious disease to be identified and for staff to begin exposure mitigation procedures; how long it takes for a patient to be transferred to an isolation room; and the capability of the facility to make notifications internally and to the health department. The Toolkit includes scenarios for Ebola Virus Disease, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, and Measles, but may be modified to suit healthcare facilities of any nature and any type of disease outbreak.

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* The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. (2017). Outbreak Response Training Program (ORTP). (Free account required.)

This webpage contains links to four free toolkits that were developed to provide healthcare providers immediate access to key infectious disease outbreak information and resources. The toolkits contain guidance on incident management, emerging pathogens, IPC strategies, COVID-19, communication, negotiation, and implementation. Each toolkit contains checklists, guidance documents, case studies, and fillable tables to meet the planning and response needs prior to or during an infectious disease outbreak.

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World Health Organization. (2018). A Practical Guide For Developing and Conducting Simulation Exercises to Test and Validate Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Plans.

Though this guide was developed to support countries in their design and conduct of pandemic influenza exercises, the detailed guidance on scenario elements and exercise evaluation may be valuable to healthcare emergency planners at the state and local level, as well as in the healthcare facility setting.

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Epidemiology and Surveillance

Black, A., Geard, N., McCaw, J., et al. (2017). Characterising Pandemic Severity and Transmissibility from Data Collected During First Few Hundred Studies. Epidemics. 19:61-73.

The authors describe a method for predicting the likely impact of an emerging influenza pandemic based on an analysis of data at the household level collected from the first few hundred cases.

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Bui, C., Chughtai, A., Adam, D., and MacIntyre, C. (2017). An Overview of the Epidemiology and Emergence of Influenza A Infection in Humans Over Time. Archives of Public Health. 75:15.

The authors reviewed the epidemiology and emergence of all influenza A serotypes known to cause human infection. They found an increase in recent years in the emergence of avian influenza viruses causing infections in humans and suggest a variety of measures to prevent the emergence of zoonotic disease.

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* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Influenza Risk Assessment Tool (IRAT). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This tool was developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other influenza experts to assess the risk of a human pandemic emerging from influenza A viruses currently circulating in animals. The IRAT uses 10 weighted evaluation criteria to assess the risk of both emergence and public health impact and to classify each virus as low, moderate, or high risk.

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* Holloway, R., Rasmussen, S., Zaza, S., et al. (2014). Updated Preparedness and Response Framework for Influenza Pandemics. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 63(RR06):1-9.

This article describes the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s revised framework for pandemic influenza preparedness and response. The authors describe the six intervals along the pandemic curve and eight domains used to organize efforts within each interval.

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* Noah, D. and Noah, J. (2013). Adapting Global Influenza Management Strategies to Address Emerging Viruses. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 305(2):L108-L117.

The authors provide an overview of influenza and discuss epidemiology and surveillance, perspectives on vaccines and antivirals, and research opportunities related to universal vaccine, alternate vaccine production strategies, novel antiviral development, and continued transmission studies.

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* Saunders-Hastings, P., and Krewski, D. (2016). Reviewing the History of Pandemic Influenza: Understanding Patterns of Emergence and Transmission. Pathogens. 5(4).

The authors review influenza pandemics throughout history to describe the changing knowledge of the virus and efforts to manage outbreaks. Given the unpredictable nature of when the next pandemic will occur, they encourage continued surveillance, coordination, and resource planning to mitigate risks.

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Viboud, C., Charu, V., Olson, D., et al. (2014). Demonstrating the Use of High-Volume Electronic Medical Claims Data to Monitor Local and Regional Influenza Activity in the US. PLoS One. 9(7).

Using electronic medical claims data from 2003 to 2010, the authors found that influenza-like illness indicators accurately reflected weekly fluctuations in influenza activity. They suggest that electronic medical claims data can supplement surveillance systems and can be used to provide situational awareness, refine influenza transmission models, and support future pandemic responses.

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General Information

American Academy of Family Physicians. (2015). Pandemic Influenza - Clinical Considerations.

This document provides an overview of clinical considerations for pandemic influenza, including sections on immunization, surveillance, reporting, prevention, diagnosis, testing indications and types, treatment, and isolation and quarantine. It also includes information on limiting transmission when managing patients at home.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). How is Pandemic Flu Different from Seasonal Flu? U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage lists commonly-asked questions about influenza and contrasts answers for seasonal influenza with pandemic influenza.

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Chest Care of the Critically Ill and Injured During Pandemics and Disasters Panel. (2014). Care of the Critically Ill and Injured During Pandemics and Disasters: Chest Consensus Statement. Chest Journal. 146(4), Supplement:p1S-41S, e1S-e177s.

This supplement to Chest Journal includes several articles composing a consensus statement of the American College of Chest Physicians on the care of the critically ill and injured during pandemics and disasters. Individual articles focus on the following: Introduction and Executive Summary; Methodology; Surge Capacity Principles; Surge Capacity Logistics; Evacuation of the ICU; Triage; Special Populations; System-Level Planning, Coordination, and Communication; Business and Continuity of Operations; Engagement and Education; Legal Preparedness; Ethical Considerations; and Infrastructure and Capacity Building and Response, Recovery, and Research in Resource-Poor Settings.

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Ghebrehewet, S., MacPherson, P., and Ho, A. (2016). Influenza. BMJ. 355.

This web page provides basic information on influenza, including what it is, what the symptoms are, how it is diagnosed and treated, and how epidemics and pandemics occur.

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Iskander, J., Strikas, R., Gensheimer, K., et al. (2013). Pandemic Influenza Planning, United States, 1978-2008. Emerging Infectious Disease. 19(6):879-885.

This article provides a chronology and describes the evolution of pandemic planning since the 1970s.

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Kash, J. and Taubenberger, J. (2015). The Role of Viral, Host, and Secondary Bacterial Factors in Influenza Pathogenesis. The American Journal of Pathology. 185(6):1528-1536.

The authors provide an overview of influenza and describe the viral, host, and bacterial factors that contribute to more severe illness, complications, and mortality.

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Mina, M. and Klugman, K. (2014). The Role of Influenza in the Severity and Transmission of Respiratory Bacterial Disease. Lancet Respiratory Medicine. 2(9):750-763.

The authors review influenza and respiratory bacterial co-infections, describing the historic understanding of such co-infections, disease dynamics and mechanisms, and prevention and treatment strategies.

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Preparing Airports for Communicable Diseases on Arriving Flights. The National Academies Press.

The authors review current disease preparedness and response practices at airports in the U.S. and Canada with a focus on coordination with public health officers and partners. The emphasize that while larger (international) airports are more likely to face these challenges, the lessons in this document are applicable to the aviation sector as a whole, including smaller airports (which may be the final destination of some travelers with communicable diseases).

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* Noah, D. and Noah, J. (2013). Adapting Global Influenza Management Strategies to Address Emerging Viruses. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 305(2):L108-L117.

The authors provide an overview of influenza and discuss epidemiology and surveillance, perspectives on vaccines and antivirals, and research opportunities related to universal vaccine, alternate vaccine production strategies, novel antiviral development, and continued transmission studies.

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Reed, C., Biggerstaff, M., Finelli, L., et al. (2013). Novel Framework for Assessing Epidemiologic Effects of Influenza Epidemics and Pandemics. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 19(1):85-91.

This article describes the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s framework for classifying pandemic severity. The authors describe the four-step process used to develop the framework and how it can be used for an initial assessment in the early stages of a pandemic and a refined assessment once additional data become available.

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* Saunders-Hastings, P., and Krewski, D. (2016). Reviewing the History of Pandemic Influenza: Understanding Patterns of Emergence and Transmission. Pathogens. 5(4).

The authors review influenza pandemics throughout history to describe the changing knowledge of the virus and efforts to manage outbreaks. Given the unpredictable nature of when the next pandemic will occur, they encourage continued surveillance, coordination, and resource planning to mitigate risks.

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Guidance

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Interim Guidance for Clinicians on Human Infections with Variant Influenza Viruses. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This document provides interim guidance for clinicians on how to identify, diagnose, report, and manage suspect cases of exposure to variant influenza viruses.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Interim Guidance for Influenza Outbreak Management in Long-Term Care and Post-Acute Care Facilities. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage provides guidance to long-term care facilities on preventing transmission of influenza through vaccination, testing, infection control, antiviral treatment, and antiviral chemoprophylaxis.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Interim Guidance for Infection Control Within Healthcare Settings When Caring for Confirmed Cases, Probable Cases, and Cases Under Investigation for Infection with Novel Influenza A Viruses Associated with Severe Disease. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage provides guidance on avian influenza A (H7N9), Asian H5N1, and newly detected avian influenza H5 viruses in the U.S.

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Florida Court Education Council’s Publication Committee. (2023). Pandemic Contagious Diseases Benchguide 2023: Legal Issues.

This bench book provides Florida judges with information they need for when they are presented with public health cases. The document begins with an introduction of public health law in the context of a public health emergency, executive powers in a public health emergency, and Florida Executive Branch procedures in an emergency. It then goes into the role of Florida Courts, and other legal issues for the Courts to consider during a public health emergency. It also provides guidance for maintaining essential court functions during a pandemic.

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New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. (2014). NYC DOHMH Guidance Document for Development of Protocols for Management of Patients Presenting to Hospital Emergency Departments and Clinics with Potentially Communicable Diseases of Public Health Concern.

This document provides guidance for emergency departments and outpatient clinics to develop screening and isolation protocols for patients possibly infected with a highly communicable disease of public health concern. The document focuses on initial patient identification, initial infection control measures, notification and patient evaluation, and identification and management of exposed persons.

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The Center for Health Policy, Columbia University School of Nursing. (2008). Adapting Standards of Care under Extreme Conditions: Guidance for Professionals during Disasters, Pandemics, and Other Extreme Emergencies. American Nurses Association.

This policy paper is intended for professionals in a care giver or service provider role. It includes guidance on ethical principles in emergency care, meeting usual care expectations, and recommendations for emergency event care.

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Various Federal Agencies. (2019). Managing Solid Waste Contaminated with a Category A Infectious Substance: Summary.

This is a summary of a guidance document based on extensive federal interagency coordination and stakeholder input and designed to help those who work in healthcare facilities, medical transportation operations, and laboratories better understand infectious waste and how to manage it. Access the full report at https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/sites/phmsa.dot.gov/files/docs/transporting-infectious-substances/6821/cat-waste-planning-guidance-final-2019-08.pdf.

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Various Federal Agencies. (2024). Planning Guidance for Handling Category A Solid Waste.

Based on extensive federal interagency coordination and stakeholder input, the guidance in this document can help those who work in healthcare facilities, medical transportation operations, and laboratories better understand infectious waste and how to manage it.

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Guidelines

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings: Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

These guidelines review data on handwashing and hand antisepsis in healthcare settings and provide recommendations for the promotion of hand hygiene practices and the reduction of pathogen transmission in healthcare settings.

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* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Antiviral Agents for the Treatment and Chemoprophylaxis of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 60(RR01):1-24.

This report provides recommendations for treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza virus infection. The authors identify populations at greater risk of complications, identify major changes from previous recommendations, describe the mechanism of virus transmission and the clinical signs and symptoms of disease, outline the role of laboratory diagnostics, and provide information on the four approved influenza antiviral agents, including their usage, dosage, adverse events, drug interactions, and possible emergency use authorization.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Information for Clinicians on Rapid Diagnostic Testing for Influenza. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage provides background information on the reliability and interpretation of rapid influenza diagnostic test results, guidance on how to minimize false results, lists details about available testing methods, and describes characteristics of rapid influenza diagnostic tests.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Prevention Strategies for Seasonal Influenza in Healthcare Settings: Guidelines and Recommendations. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage defines healthcare settings and healthcare personnel, discusses modes of influenza transmission and fundamental elements of prevention; and outlines 13 recommended prevention strategies.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). Isolation Precautions Guideline. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This document provides infection control guidelines for healthcare settings across the continuum of care. It is intended to inform the development, implementation, and evaluation of infection control and prevention programs in healthcare settings.

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* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). ACIP Recommendations: Influenza (Flu) Vaccine. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage includes links to current and archived influenza vaccine recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.

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* Illinois Emergency Medical Services for Children. (2010). Use of Strategic National Stockpile [SNS] Ventilators in the Pediatric Patient: Instructional Guidelines with Training Scenarios, 2nd Edition (2010).

These guidelines are intended as a quick reference for just-in-time training and set up of the types of mechanical ventilators included in the Strategic National Stockpile. The guidelines may be used by clinicians with a baseline knowledge of pulmonary physiology and the concepts of ventilation, but who may not be familiar with the stockpiled ventilators or who may not routinely care for children on ventilators.

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Infectious Diseases Society of America. (2016). ID-Focused Hospital Efficiency Improvement Program.

This guide for infectious disease physician executives identifies service lines and related metrics to mitigate infectious disease-related issues. The guide addresses four areas: infection prevention and control; antimicrobial stewardship; outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy hospital admission/readmission avoidance; and bio-security, bio-preparedness, and emerging infectious diseases.

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Kulkarni, T., Sharma., N., and Diaz-Guzman, E. (2016). Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation in Adults: A Practical Guide for Internists. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 83(5):373-384.

The authors review current evidence and indications for ECMO. They describe what it is, who could benefit, how to do it, and what the complications are. ECMO was used extensively during the H1N1 pandemic, and the guide has implications on decisions for its use during future influenza pandemics.

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Lango, R., Szkulmowski, Z., Maciejewski, D., et al. (2017). Revised Protocol of Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) Therapy in Severe ARDS. Recommendations of the Veno-Venous ECMO Expert Panel Appointed in February 2016 by the National Consultant on Anesthesiology and Intensive Care. (Abstract only.) Anaesthesiology Intensive Therapy. 49(2):88-99.

This protocol developed by an expert panel is based on a literature review and the experience of Polish treatment centers with extensive use of veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). The protocol is intended to improve treatment outcomes, expand access to ECMO where appropriate, and to avoid the use of ECMO in situations when it is unlikely to be beneficial.

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* Los Angeles County Emergency Medical Services Agency. (2009). Recommended Actions for EMS Providers to Prepare For and Respond to Pandemic Influenza.

This document provides pandemic influenza guidelines for emergency medical services responders and management, recommended actions during each pandemic period, and additional resources, such as infection control information, employee health considerations, and patient assessment tools.

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* Los Angeles County Emergency Medical Services Agency. (2010). Recommended Actions for Hospitals to Prepare for and Respond to Pandemic Influenza.

This document provides guidelines to hospitals to prepare for an influenza pandemic. It includes a summary of recommended actions and their triggers, checklists, sample response guides, general background information, and links to additional resources.

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* National Emerging Special Pathogens Training and Education Center. (2024). EMS Procedural Guidelines for Special Pathogens.

These model procedural guidelines, created by NETEC's EMS/Patient Transport Work Group, are designed to help EMS agencies develop standard operating procedures for the transport and management of patients suspected or confirmed to have a high-consequence infectious disease. The guidelines address personal protective equipment (PPE) donning and doffing, EMS provider down, PPE breaches, biohazard spills, waste management, ambulance modification, and ambulance cleaning and disinfection. They complement ASPR TRACIE's EMS Infectious Disease Playbook (https://files.asprtracie.hhs.gov/documents/aspr-tracie-transport-playbook-508.pdf).

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* Qualls, N., Levitt, A., Kanade, N., et al. (2017). Community Mitigation Guidelines to Prevent Pandemic Influenza - United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 66(1):1-34.

These guidelines update Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommendations on the use of non-pharmaceutical interventions to slow the spread of infectious respiratory diseases, including influenza.

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Vemula, S., Zhao, J., Liu, J., et al. (2016). Current Approaches for Diagnosis of Influenza Virus Infections in Humans. Viruses. 8(4).

This article describes the various approaches currently available to diagnose human influenza infections. The authors discuss advantages and limitations of the various approaches, such as sensitivity and specificity of the tests, cost-effectiveness, and ease to perform.

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Wijetunge, G. and Oliver, A. (2009). State EMS System Pandemic Influenza Preparedness: A Report of the FICEMS. Federal Interagency Committee on EMS.

This report reviews gaps in influenza pandemic preparedness among emergency medical services and 911 systems and outlines five strategies to address these gaps.

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World Health Organization. (2014). Infection Prevention and Control of Epidemic- and Pandemic-Prone Acute Respiratory Infections in Health Care: WHO Guidelines.

This document provides recommendations, best practices and principles for infection prevention and control for acute respiratory infections in health care, particularly those that present as epidemics or pandemics. It includes information on PPE and aerosol-generating procedures. There are also summaries of literature and research reviews on physical interventions for infection control; risk of transmission from aerosol-generating procedures; and effectiveness of vaccination of health care workers to protect patients.

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Lessons Learned

ASPR TRACIE. (2022). Infection Prevention and Control: Incorporating Lessons Learned in Managing Special Pathogens.

Speakers share lessons learned in infection prevention and control from the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Kao, H., Ko, H., Guo, P., et al. (2017). Taiwan's Experience in Hospital Preparedness and Response for Emerging Infectious Diseases. Health Security. 15(2):175-184.

The authors describe Taiwan’s Communicable Disease Control Medical Network, which was established after the 2003 SARS outbreak, and discuss its performance during the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic and the West African Ebola outbreak. They discuss similarities with the tiered response system established in the U.S. for Ebola, identify strengths as the establishment of a command system with well-prepared hospitals and trained personnel, and note the challenges of maintaining funding, clarifying the role of local public health authorities, and incentivizing the participation of frontline clinical staff.

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National Association of County and City Health Officials. (2010). Partners in Preparedness - Innovative Practices in Public-Private Partnerships for Pandemic Influenza Preparedness: Case Study #1: Local Health Departments Partner with Community Pharmacies for H1N1 and Seasonal Influenza Prevention, Vaccination, and Response. Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy.

This case study describes the collaboration between the Palm Beach County (FL) Health Department and the medical and hospital community, responding partners, and community pharmacies that facilitated a mass influenza vaccination campaign during the H1N1 influenza outbreak in 2009. The partnership enabled information and vaccines to flow from the health department to hundreds of area supermarkets and community pharmacies and their in-store health clinics, ensuring the public had access to credible and timely influenza information.

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Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response. (2012). An HHS Retrospective on the 2009 H1N1 Influenza Pandemic to Advance All Hazards Preparedness. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The authors share lessons learned from the 2009 influenza pandemic, grouped into the following categories: surveillance, mitigation measures, vaccination, and communications and education.

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* Patel, A., D’Alessandro, M., Ireland, K., et al. (2017). Personal Protective Equipment Supply Chain: Lessons Learned from Recent Public Health Emergency Responses. (Abstract only.) Health Security. 15(3):244-252.

The authors describe lessons learned from the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic and the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic related to the commercial supply chain of pharmaceutical and other healthcare products. They discuss how these lessons learned could inform readiness for future emergencies from a personal protective equipment supply chain and system perspective.

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Paules, C. Eisinger, R., Marston, H., and Fauci, A. (2017). What Recent History Has Taught Us About Responding to Emerging Infectious Disease Threats. (Abstract only.) Annals of Internal Medicine. 167(11):805-811.

The authors share lessons learned from recent outbreaks that can be incorporated into planning efforts for future public health emergencies.

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The Independent Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response. (2021). COVID-19: Make it the Last Pandemic.

This report shares the Panel's perspective on the COVID-19 pandemic, identifies lessons learned, and offers recommendations to prevent future pandemics.

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Trust for America's Health. (2009). Pandemic Flu Preparedness: Lessons from the Frontlines.

This report examines early lessons learned by the healthcare system from the response to the 2009 H1N1 pandemic and highlights ongoing concerns about overall U.S. preparedness for potential outbreaks.

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U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2009). Influenza Pandemic: Monitoring and Assessing the Status of the National Pandemic Implementation Plan Needs Improvement.

The U.S. Government Accountability Office was charged with 1) determining how the Homeland Security Council and the responsible Federal agencies were monitoring the progress and completion of the Implementation Plan for the National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza, and 2) assessing the extent to which selected action items have been completed.

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U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2022). Coronavirus Oversight.

This webpage provides links to all of the Government Accountability Office's reports related to the federal response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Also included is a downloadable spreadsheet of recommendations.

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Non-Pharmaceutical Strategies

Barrios, L., Koonin, L., Kohl, K., and Cetron, M. (2012). Selecting Nonpharmaceutical Strategies to Minimize Influenza Spread: The 2009 Influenza A (H1N1) Pandemic and Beyond. Public Health Reports. 127(6):565-571.

The authors describe the development of guidance on non-pharmaceutical strategies to minimize the spread of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic. They recommend a framework to be used by state and local health officials when collaborating with stakeholders including educational officials and large employers to select which non-pharmaceutical measures to use during a future pandemic.

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Fong, M., Gao, H., Wong, J., et al. (2020). Nonpharmaceutical Measures for Pandemic Influenza in Nonhealthcare Settings—Social Distancing Measures. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 26(5).

The authors conducted systematic reviews of available evidence on the effectiveness of various social distancing measures in non-healthcare settings in reducing influenza transmission. The measures reviewed were: isolating ill persons, contact tracing, quarantined of those exposed, school dismissals or closures, workplace measures or closures, and avoiding crowding.

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Hatchett, R., Mecher, C., and Lipsitch, M. (2007). Public Health Interventions and Epidemic Intensity During the 1918 Influenza Pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104(18):7582-7587.

The authors examined 19 categories of public health responses in 17 cities during the first 16 weeks of the 1918 influenza pandemic to determine their effectiveness. They found that early interventions were most effective in lowering peak death rates and that early closures of schools, churches, and theatres were associated with lower peak excess death rates.

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Martinez, D. and Das, T. (2014). Design of Non-Pharmaceutical Intervention Strategies for Pandemic Influenza Outbreaks. BMC Public Health. 14(1328).

The authors modeled various non-pharmaceutical interventions, social behaviors, and their interactions on outcome measures such as numbers of contacts, infections, and deaths to simulate the effects of the strategies on pandemic influenza outbreaks with varying levels of virus transmissibility.

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* Noah, D. and Noah, J. (2013). Adapting Global Influenza Management Strategies to Address Emerging Viruses. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 305(2):L108-L117.

The authors provide an overview of influenza and discuss epidemiology and surveillance, perspectives on vaccines and antivirals, and research opportunities related to universal vaccine, alternate vaccine production strategies, novel antiviral development, and continued transmission studies.

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* Qualls, N., Levitt, A., Kanade, N., et al. (2017). Community Mitigation Guidelines to Prevent Pandemic Influenza - United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 66(1):1-34.

These guidelines update Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommendations on the use of non-pharmaceutical interventions to slow the spread of infectious respiratory diseases, including influenza.

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Ryu, S., Gao, H., Wong, J., et al. (2020). Nonpharmaceutical Measures for Pandemic Influenza in Nonhealthcare Settings—International Travel-Related Measures. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 26(5).

The authors completed systematic reviews of nonpharmaceutical interventions related to international travel and movement for evidence of effectiveness against pandemic influenza. Measures studied were screening travelers for infection, travel restrictions, and border closures.

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* Saunders-Hastings, P., Quinn Hayes, B., Smith, R., and Krewski, D. (2017). Modelling Community-Control Strategies to Protect Hospital Resources During An Influenza Pandemic in Ottawa, Canada. PLoS One. 12(6).

The authors modeled the effects on hospital capacity in one city of various strategies to control an influenza pandemic. They calculated ranges bounded by no interventions and all interventions for the attack rate, peak acute care hospital capacity, peak intensive care unit capacity, and mortality along with estimated economic burdens. They found vaccination, isolation, and personal protective measures to be the most effective strategies. However, all interventions decreased in effectiveness as transmissibility increased and as the outbreak progressed.

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* Saunders-Hastings, P., Reisman, J., and Krewski, D. (2015). Assessing the State of Knowledge Regarding the Effectiveness of Interventions to Contain Pandemic Influenza Transmission: A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis. PLoS One. 11(12).

This study reviews existing systematic reviews and meta-analyses on pandemic influenza interventions including vaccines, antivirals, personal protective measures, school closures, and traditional Chinese medicine. Pandemic influenza vaccine was found to be protective against infection, but the authors found insufficient evidence for the effectiveness of each of the other interventions in isolation and hypothesized that a combination of interventions would be most effective.

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* Torner, N., Soldevila, N., Garcia, J., et al. (2015). Effectiveness of Non-Pharmaceutical Measures in Preventing Pediatric Influenza: A Case-Control Study. BMC Public Health. 15(543).

In this case-control study of illnesses during the 2009-10 and 2010-11 seasons, the authors evaluated the effectiveness of frequency of hand washing, alcohol-based hand sanitizer use, and hand washing after touching contaminated surfaces. Hand washing more than five times per day was the only statistically significant protective factor. Among the school-age 5-17 year old group, both hand washing more than five times per day and hand washing after touching contaminated surfaces had a negative association for influenza infection.

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Xiao, J., Shiu, E., Gao, H., et al. (2020). Nonpharmaceutical Measures for Pandemic Influenza in Nonhealthcare Settings—Personal Protective and Environmental Measures. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 26(5).

The authors completed systematic reviews of the effectiveness of personal protective and environmental measures in reducing influenza transmission. Measures studied were: hand hygiene, respiratory etiquette, face masks, and surface and object cleaning.

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Zhang, Q. and Wang, D. (2015). Assessing the Role of Voluntary Self-Isolation in the Control of Pandemic Influenza Using a Household Epidemic Model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 12(8):9750-9767.

The authors modeled the effect of voluntary self-isolation when distribution of antivirals is delayed and found that it reduced the transmission of pandemic influenza. Voluntary self-isolation is more effective the closer in time to symptom onset it is implemented and loses effectiveness as the proportion of asymptomatic infections increases.

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Pediatric Issues

* American Academy of Pediatrics. (2013). Pediatric Preparedness Resource Kit.

This resource kit was designed to address issues that occurred during 2009 H1N1 planning and allows for pediatricians, public health leaders, and other pediatric care providers to assess what is already happening in their community or state, and help determine what needs to be done before an emergency or disaster. It promotes collaborative discussions and decision making about pediatric preparedness planning at the local and state level and encourages integration of pediatric providers into disaster planning. It also contains a link to the Joint Policy Statement—Guidelines for Care of Children in the Emergency Department, as well as a Preparedness Checklist for Pediatric Practices and guidance for prioritizing vaccination during pandemics.

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* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Coordinating Pediatric Medical Care During an Influenza Pandemic: Hospital Workbook. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This workbook was designed to assist hospitals in coordinating the care of pediatric patients during an influenza pandemic. The workbook guides hospitals in thinking about needed actions to inform their preparedness planning. NOTE: This resource is outdated, however it provides useful information that may still be relevant.

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* Illinois Emergency Medical Services for Children. (2010). Use of Strategic National Stockpile [SNS] Ventilators in the Pediatric Patient: Instructional Guidelines with Training Scenarios, 2nd Edition (2010).

These guidelines are intended as a quick reference for just-in-time training and set up of the types of mechanical ventilators included in the Strategic National Stockpile. The guidelines may be used by clinicians with a baseline knowledge of pulmonary physiology and the concepts of ventilation, but who may not be familiar with the stockpiled ventilators or who may not routinely care for children on ventilators.

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Shakib, J., Korgenski, K., Presson, A., et al. (2017). Influenza in Infants Born to Women Vaccinated During Pregnancy. Pediatrics. 137(6).

This cohort study to compare influenza outcomes of infants less than 6 months of age born to vaccinated and unvaccinated women included more than 245,000 women who delivered nearly 250,000 infants in a single health system between December 2005 and March 2014. The authors found that while only 10% of pregnant women were vaccinated during the overall course of the study, the proportion steadily increased to 52% in the final season. They also found a 64% reduction in influenza-like illness health encounters, a 70% reduction in laboratory-confirmed influenza, and an 81% reduction in hospitalization with laboratory-confirmed influenza in infants born to women who reported being vaccinated during pregnancy and 97% of laboratory-confirmed influenza in infants less than 6 month occurred in those born to women who did not report being vaccinated during pregnancy.

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* Torner, N., Soldevila, N., Garcia, J., et al. (2015). Effectiveness of Non-Pharmaceutical Measures in Preventing Pediatric Influenza: A Case-Control Study. BMC Public Health. 15(543).

In this case-control study of illnesses during the 2009-10 and 2010-11 seasons, the authors evaluated the effectiveness of frequency of hand washing, alcohol-based hand sanitizer use, and hand washing after touching contaminated surfaces. Hand washing more than five times per day was the only statistically significant protective factor. Among the school-age 5-17 year old group, both hand washing more than five times per day and hand washing after touching contaminated surfaces had a negative association for influenza infection.

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Personal Protective Equipment and Worker Safety

Bessesen, M., Adams, J., Radonovich, L., and Anderson, J. (2015). Disinfection of Reusable Elastomeric Respirators by Health Care Workers: A Feasibility Study and Development of Standard Operating Procedures. American Journal of Infection Control. 43(6): 629-634.

This article describes a Department of Veterans Affairs feasibility study on the ability of personnel to safely disinfect respirators under pandemic conditions by following standard operating procedures.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Seasonal Influenza Vaccination Resources for Health Professionals. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This web page provides questions and answers to illustrate the importance of influenza vaccination among healthcare workers to not only protect vaccinated personnel but also to reduce transmission of influenza in healthcare settings.

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Chughtai, A., Seale, H., and MacIntyre, C. (2013). Availability, Consistency and Evidence-base of Policies and Guidelines on the Use of Mask and Respirator to Protect Hospital Health Care Workers: A Global Analysis. BMC Research Notes. 6:216.

The authors examined existing policies and guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the World Health Organization, three high-income countries, and six low/middle-income countries on mask and respirator use for influenza, SARS, and tuberculosis. They found significant variation in choice of products, applications, and specifications. They encourage joint evaluation of evidence and development of a uniform policy to reduce confusion in healthcare settings.

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Fisher, E. and Shaffer, R. (2014). Commentary Considerations for Recommending Extended Use and Limited Reuse of Filtering Facepiece Respirators in Health Care Settings. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene. 11(8):D115-D128.

This article reviews scientific findings on the extended use or reuse of filtering facepiece respirators in healthcare settings. The authors discuss considerations for routine events versus during public health emergencies. The authors express a preference for extended use over reuse and suggest that future recommendations consider new cautions and limitations.

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Kilinc, F. (2015). A Review of Isolation Gowns in Healthcare: Fabric and Gown Properties.

The author provides an overview on occupational exposure to emerging infectious diseases in the healthcare industry and the history and use of isolation gowns as personal protective equipment (PPE). As the second-most used type of PPE, the author discusses properties affecting gown performance and factors influencing their design and development.

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Larson, E. and Liverman, C., eds. (2011). Preventing Transmission of Pandemic Influenza and Other Viral Respiratory Diseases: Personal Protective Equipment for Healthcare Personnel: Update 2010. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

This report was updated following the 2009 H1N1 pandemic to assess current knowledge on personal protective equipment, research progress, and future efforts to protect healthcare personnel.

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Lindsley, W., Martin, S., Thewlis, R., et al. (2015). Effects of Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI) on N95 Respirator Filtration Performance and Structural Integrity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene. 12(8):509-517.

The authors exposed material coupons and straps from four models of N95 filtering facepiece respirators to a range of doses of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation to test particle penetration, flow resistance, bursting strengths of coupon layers, and breaking strength of straps. They found small effects on filtration performance and almost no effect on flow resistance, but a reduction in the strength of respirator materials of more than 90% in some models and a 20-51% reduction in breaking strength of straps. The authors suggest that ultraviolet germicidal irradiation is a possible method to disinfect respirators for reuse, but the respirator model used should first be tested to determine the maximum number of disinfection cycles and the dose required to inactivate the specific pathogen.

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Liverman, C., Domnitz, S., and McCoy, M. (2015). The Use and Effectiveness of Powered Air Purifying Respirators in Health Care: Workshop Summary. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

This report summarizes the proceedings of a workshop examining the current state of practice on the use of powered air purifying respirators in healthcare settings and research on their use and effectiveness.

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2019). Reusable Elastomeric Respirators in Health Care: Considerations for Routine and Surge Use. The National Academies Press.

This report examines strategies for and pros and cons related to stockpiling and reusing elastomeric respirators during an influenza pandemic or other large aerosol-transmissible outbreak.

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National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (2015). NIOSH Personal Protective Equipment Information (PPE-Info). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

This website compiles standards information for personal protective equipment from the U.S. government, American National Standards Institute-accredited standard development organizations, and the International Organization for Standardization. Users can search the database by fields including the category of personal protective equipment, hazard type, standard type, and standard organization.

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). Respiratory Protection. (Accessed 9/9/2024.) U.S. Department of Labor.

This webpage contains standards on respirators, respiratory protection, and the medical evaluation program.

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2009). Pandemic Influenza Preparedness and Response Guidance for Healthcare Workers and Healthcare Employers. U.S. Department of Labor.

This document provides an overview of infection control and other standards appropriate for pandemic influenza.

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2014). Protecting Workers During a Pandemic. U.S. Department of Labor.

This fact sheet provides guidance on workplace practices related to pandemic influenza.

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* Patel, A., D’Alessandro, M., Ireland, K., et al. (2017). Personal Protective Equipment Supply Chain: Lessons Learned from Recent Public Health Emergency Responses. (Abstract only.) Health Security. 15(3):244-252.

The authors describe lessons learned from the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic and the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic related to the commercial supply chain of pharmaceutical and other healthcare products. They discuss how these lessons learned could inform readiness for future emergencies from a personal protective equipment supply chain and system perspective.

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Pillai, S., Beekmann, S., Babcock, H., et al. (2015). Clinician Beliefs and Attitudes Regarding Use of Respiratory Protective Devices and Surgical Masks for Influenza. Health Security. 13(4):274-280.

The authors described a survey of infectious disease physicians to learn their perspectives on influenza transmission, personal protective equipment preferences, respirator supplies, barriers to expanded use of respirators, and respirator conservation strategies. Among the findings, respondents widely agreed with recommendations to use surgical masks during seasonal influenza outbreaks. They slightly favored N95 respirators during mild severity pandemics, but two-thirds preferred N95 respirators over surgical masks during a high mortality pandemic. They also preferred extended use or reuse of disposable N95 respirators over elastomeric or powered air-purifying respirators in the event of a respirator shortage.

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Saunders-Hastings, P., Crispo, J., Sikora, L., et al. (2017). Effectiveness of Personal Protective Measures in Reducing Pandemic Influenza Transmission: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Epidemics.

This meta-analysis examined the effectiveness of hand hygiene, respiratory etiquette, and use of facemasks in reducing the risk of pandemic influenza transmission. The authors did not find data on the effectiveness of respiratory etiquette, but found that hand hygiene was statistically significant and wearing a face mask was suggestive of preventing infection.

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Smith, J., MacDougall, C., Johnstone, J., et al. (2016). Effectiveness of N95 Respirators Versus Surgical Masks in Protecting Health Care Workers from Acute Respiratory Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 188(8):567-574.

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of both clinical studies and surrogate exposure studies comparing N95 respirators to surgical masks to prevent transmission of acute respiratory infections. While the surrogate studies suggested a protective advantage of N95 respirators over surgical masks, the meta-analysis showed insufficient data to definitely determine whether N95 respirators are more protective.

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Plans, Tools, and Templates: EMS

* ASPR TRACIE. (2019). Healthcare Coalition Influenza Pandemic Checklist. U.S Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response.

This planning tool is intended to assist healthcare coalitions (HCCs) and their partners in assessing their preparedness for an influenza pandemic. It may also be used to orient the response as a pandemic begins. This checklist can help HCCs assess, create, and improve their pandemic preparedness and response plans.

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ASPR TRACIE. (2024). EMS Infectious Disease Playbook.

This playbook (updated in 2023) synthesizes multiple sources of information in a single planning document addressing the full spectrum of infectious agents to create a concise reference resource for emergency medical services (EMS) agencies developing their service policies. The information can be incorporated into agency standard operating procedures and reviewed by the EMS medical director.

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Bridget Kanawati Thank you for your interest in this resource. Unfortunately, funding restrictions preclude our being able to provide printed versions of our resources so all of our products, including this one, are only available electronically. ASPR TRACIE Team
3/26/2020 2:12:42 PM
Frances Thorpe I agree with Tracy, is there a way to order this publication in hard copy format? The information contained in this publication highlights agency infection control policies and is a great resource to have in the department library.
3/26/2020 12:21:37 PM
Tracy Miller Is there any way to order a printed and bound version?
8/9/2018 5:16:09 PM

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Emergency Medical Service and Non-Emergent (Medical) Transport Organizations Pandemic Influenza Planning Checklist. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This planning checklist is intended to assist emergency medical services and other transport providers assess and improve their influenza pandemic preparedness.

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* Los Angeles County Emergency Medical Services Agency. (2009). Recommended Actions for EMS Providers to Prepare For and Respond to Pandemic Influenza.

This document provides pandemic influenza guidelines for emergency medical services responders and management, recommended actions during each pandemic period, and additional resources, such as infection control information, employee health considerations, and patient assessment tools.

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* National Emerging Special Pathogens Training and Education Center. (2024). EMS Procedural Guidelines for Special Pathogens.

These model procedural guidelines, created by NETEC's EMS/Patient Transport Work Group, are designed to help EMS agencies develop standard operating procedures for the transport and management of patients suspected or confirmed to have a high-consequence infectious disease. The guidelines address personal protective equipment (PPE) donning and doffing, EMS provider down, PPE breaches, biohazard spills, waste management, ambulance modification, and ambulance cleaning and disinfection. They complement ASPR TRACIE's EMS Infectious Disease Playbook (https://files.asprtracie.hhs.gov/documents/aspr-tracie-transport-playbook-508.pdf).

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Plans, Tools, and Templates: Hospitals

American College of Emergency Physicians. (n.d.). National Strategic Plan for Emergency Department Management of Outbreaks of Novel H1N1 Influenza. (Accessed 10/3/2019.)

This plan can help healthcare providers manage an H1N1 outbreak or other large scale epidemic or pandemic. Developed during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, it provides a checklist/template for hospital preparedness.

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* ASPR TRACIE. (2019). Healthcare Coalition Influenza Pandemic Checklist. U.S Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response.

This planning tool is intended to assist healthcare coalitions (HCCs) and their partners in assessing their preparedness for an influenza pandemic. It may also be used to orient the response as a pandemic begins. This checklist can help HCCs assess, create, and improve their pandemic preparedness and response plans.

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* ASPR TRACIE. (2021). Step-by-Step Guide to Implementing the Coalition Infectious Disease Annex TTX Template (PDF).

This guide is part of a toolkit that can help emergency planners create an interactive, discussion-based exercise focusing on impacts to healthcare coalition and healthcare facilities caused by large numbers of patients seeking healthcare following exposure to an infectious agent.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2007). Hospital Pandemic Influenza Planning Checklist. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This checklist is intended to assist hospitals in evaluating current pandemic influenza plans or developing new ones.

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* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Coordinating Pediatric Medical Care During an Influenza Pandemic: Hospital Workbook. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This workbook was designed to assist hospitals in coordinating the care of pediatric patients during an influenza pandemic. The workbook guides hospitals in thinking about needed actions to inform their preparedness planning. NOTE: This resource is outdated, however it provides useful information that may still be relevant.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Healthcare System Preparedness and Response. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This guide is intended to assist community hospitals in identifying issues with response capabilities and resource availability during an influenza pandemic as well as to develop strategies to address them.

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* Los Angeles County Emergency Medical Services Agency. (2010). Recommended Actions for Hospitals to Prepare for and Respond to Pandemic Influenza.

This document provides guidelines to hospitals to prepare for an influenza pandemic. It includes a summary of recommended actions and their triggers, checklists, sample response guides, general background information, and links to additional resources.

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Minnesota Department of Health, Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology - Minnesota, and Health Care Coalitions of Minnesota. (2019). High Consequence Infectious Disease (HCID) Toolbox for Frontline Health Care Facilities.

This toolbox includes a variety of resources to assist frontline facilities in their readiness activities related to patients with high consequence infectious diseases. Included are planning and training tools, exercise templates, and the components (e.g., screening guide, checklists, posters) to create a readiness binder.

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* New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. (n.d.). Mystery Patient Drill Toolkit. (Accessed 9/9/2024.)

This toolkit is intended for use by hospital emergency departments, and tests how long it takes for a potential patient with a highly infectious disease to be identified and for staff to begin exposure mitigation procedures; how long it takes for a patient to be transferred to an isolation room; and the capability of the facility to make notifications internally and to the health department. The Toolkit includes scenarios for Ebola Virus Disease, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, and Measles, but may be modified to suit healthcare facilities of any nature and any type of disease outbreak.

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New York City Health + Hospitals. (2019). Frontline Hospital Planning Guide: Special Pathogens.

This planning guide from New York City Health + Hospitals provides high-level planning information for frontline hospital multidisciplinary teams to support planning and training for the initial care of suspected special pathogen patients while determining whether and when they will be transferred to another facility for further assessment and treatment.

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* The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. (2017). Outbreak Response Training Program (ORTP). (Free account required.)

This webpage contains links to four free toolkits that were developed to provide healthcare providers immediate access to key infectious disease outbreak information and resources. The toolkits contain guidance on incident management, emerging pathogens, IPC strategies, COVID-19, communication, negotiation, and implementation. Each toolkit contains checklists, guidance documents, case studies, and fillable tables to meet the planning and response needs prior to or during an infectious disease outbreak.

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Plans, Tools, and Templates: Long Term Care/Assisted Living/Home Health

Anderson, E. and Montgomery, J. (2010). Pandemic Influenza Workbook for Long Term Care Providers. California Association of Health Facilities.

This state-specific report provides guidance to long-term providers on what actions to take to protect the health and safety of the staff and residents in their facilities in the event of a pandemic influenza outbreak (e.g., vaccines/antivirals, PPE use, staff impact and augmented supply management). It may be used to develop a hazard-specific Pandemic Influenza Plan Annex to a facility’s Emergency Operations Plan.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Home Health Care Services Pandemic Influenza Planning Checklist. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This checklist can help public and private healthcare organizations assess and better their pandemic influenza preparedness and planning.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Post-acute and Long-term Care Facility Toolkit: Influenza Vaccination among Health Care Personnel. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This toolkit has sub links in three areas: staff vaccinations; increasing coverage and other vaccine-related information. It is intended to inform long-term care facilities and their owners about the importance of influenza vaccination among their workforce.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Menu of State Long-Term Care Facility Influenza Vaccination Laws. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This resource identifies state statutes or regulations that require long term care facilities to assess the influenza vaccination status of personnel or patients, to offer or require influenza vaccination among personnel or patients, or require unvaccinated personnel to wear surgical masks during influenza season.

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Minnesota Department of Health. (2023). Long-Term Care (LTC) Emergency Preparedness. (Added 9/4/2020.)

This resource page for LTC owners, administrators, and staff and their emergency preparedness partners includes downloadable Word templates to create contingency staffing and testing plans for LTCs. Also included are webinar recordings describing how to use each of the plan templates and guidance on effectively developing a testing plan using the template. While developed for the COVID-19 pandemic, these resources may be used for other epidemics that stress staffing and testing resources.

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New Jersey Hospital Association (2010). Planning Today for a Pandemic Tomorrow: A Tool for Nursing Facilities.

This tool is intended to assist nursing facilities in developing their pandemic preparedness and response plans. It consists of several modules, which are to be used as a guide to facilitate discussion and to ensure that key points related to a specific topic, such as human resources, are identified and addressed in the planning process. It also includes sample policies and procedures and a module on ethics/values.

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Plans, Tools, and Templates: Other

Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response. (2021). National Health Security Strategy. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The goal of the National Health Security Strategy (NHSS) is to strengthen and sustain communities’ abilities to prevent, protect against, mitigate the effects of, respond to, and recover from disasters and emergencies. This webpage includes links to the full text of the strategy, an overview, the NHSS Implementation Plan, the NHSS Evaluation of Progress, and an NHSS Archive.

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Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. (2017). Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Response Plan (The Red Book). U.S. Department of Agriculture.

This document updates the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s guidance how to respond to a highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreak. It considers protection for the public health, agricultural security, the food supply, and animal health. It discusses the risks to poultry flocks, in which highly pathogenic avian influenza can cause significant morbidity and mortality.

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* ASPR TRACIE. (2019). Healthcare Coalition Influenza Pandemic Checklist. U.S Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response.

This planning tool is intended to assist healthcare coalitions (HCCs) and their partners in assessing their preparedness for an influenza pandemic. It may also be used to orient the response as a pandemic begins. This checklist can help HCCs assess, create, and improve their pandemic preparedness and response plans.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2005). Business Pandemic Influenza Planning Checklist. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This checklist identifies actions that businesses can take to plan for pandemic influenza.

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* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Influenza Risk Assessment Tool (IRAT). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This tool was developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other influenza experts to assess the risk of a human pandemic emerging from influenza A viruses currently circulating in animals. The IRAT uses 10 weighted evaluation criteria to assess the risk of both emergence and public health impact and to classify each virus as low, moderate, or high risk.

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Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. (2021). CMS Pandemic Plan v. 3.1 Public Release. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This plan documents actions by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services to prepare for, respond to, and recover from pandemics, including details on the policy and operational responses of the agency to support internal and external stakeholders.

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* Holloway, R., Rasmussen, S., Zaza, S., et al. (2014). Updated Preparedness and Response Framework for Influenza Pandemics. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 63(RR06):1-9.

This article describes the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s revised framework for pandemic influenza preparedness and response. The authors describe the six intervals along the pandemic curve and eight domains used to organize efforts within each interval.

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National Ebola Training and Education Center. (n.d.). NETEC Exercise Templates. (Accessed 9/9/2024.)

This web page includes links to various Homeland Security Exercise and Evaluation Program-compliant templates to assist healthcare coalitions, frontline facilities, assessment hospitals, state-designated Ebola treatment centers, regional Ebola and special pathogen treatment centers, and their respective response partners in the planning and conduct of exercises on the identification, assessment, treatment, management, transport, and transfer of high risk patients. The site includes templates for drills, tabletops, functional, and full-scale exercises. There is also a beginners guide to assist users new to exercise planning.

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Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response. (2005). National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza provides strategies to stop, slow or limit the spread of a pandemic to the United States; limit the domestic spread of a pandemic, and mitigate disease, suffering and death; and sustain infrastructure and minimize economic and societal impacts. It aims to do so through preparedness and communication; surveillance and detection; and response and containment.

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San Francisco Department of Public Health. (2011). Infectious Disease Emergency Response Plan.

This plan contains the following sections: command, plans section (by unit), operations section, logistics, and finance. Four annexes that focus on different threats are included, as are sample forms and other appendices.

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Santa Clara County Public Health Department. (n.d.). Home Care Guide: Providing Care at Home during Pandemic Flu. (Accessed 10/3/2019.) Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy.

This guide can help people create a plan for and recognize the signs of influenza and care for themselves or others sick with the virus. It is available in several languages.

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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2017). Pandemic Influenza Plan: 2017 Update.

This updated plan builds upon the 2005 Pandemic Influenza Plan and its subsequent updates, focusing on the seven domains of: surveillance, epidemiology, and laboratory activities; community mitigation measures; medical countermeasures; health care system preparedness and response activities; communications and public outreach; scientific infrastructure and preparedness; and domestic and international response policy, incident management, and global partnerships and capacity building.

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University of Minnesota, Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy. (2009). Doing Business During an Influenza Pandemic: A Toolkit for Organizations of All Sizes.

This toolkit is intended to provide business leaders that are new to pandemic planning with information regarding high-priority Human Resources (HR) issues related to business operations during influenza pandemic. While some of the links in the presentation are outdated, the presentation provides a valuable overview of issues and tasks.

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Plans, Tools, and Templates: Physician Offices

American Academy of Family Physicians. (2015). Checklist to Prepare Physicians' Offices for Pandemic Influenza.

This checklist identifies universal early preparations, describes actions for areas with suspected or known pandemic influenza, outlines telephone and office triage, notes referral or transfer and waste disposal procedures, and lists required equipment and supplies for physician offices to consider when preparing for pandemic influenza.

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* American Academy of Pediatrics. (2013). Pediatric Preparedness Resource Kit.

This resource kit was designed to address issues that occurred during 2009 H1N1 planning and allows for pediatricians, public health leaders, and other pediatric care providers to assess what is already happening in their community or state, and help determine what needs to be done before an emergency or disaster. It promotes collaborative discussions and decision making about pediatric preparedness planning at the local and state level and encourages integration of pediatric providers into disaster planning. It also contains a link to the Joint Policy Statement—Guidelines for Care of Children in the Emergency Department, as well as a Preparedness Checklist for Pediatric Practices and guidance for prioritizing vaccination during pandemics.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Abbreviated Pandemic Influenza Plan Template for Primary Care Provider Offices: Guidance from Stakeholders. (Accessed 6/3/2024.) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The planning tool, based on discussion during an August 2009 CDC-sponsored stakeholder meeting, identifies considerations in a wide range of subject areas that primary care office staff should keep in mind when developing their office pandemic plans.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Medical Office Telephone Evaluation of Patients with Possible Influenza. (Accessed 11/7/2019.) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This flowchart can aid medical staff in triaging calls. The tool may identify high-risk patients for consideration of initiation of antiviral treatment prior to an office visit.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Pandemic Influenza Pediatric Office Plan Template: Product of a Pediatric Healthcare Response to Pandemic H1N1 Influenza Stakeholder Meeting. (Accessed 4/2/2024.) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This template can assist pediatric medical offices in identifying needed modifications to current office practices and developing a pandemic influenza plan.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Medical Office Preparedness Planner: A Tool for Primary Care Provider Offices. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This document was created to help primary care providers develop pandemic influenza response plans. It includes a monthly planning calendar, as well as a detailed plan template for practices to fill in.

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Research

Aoyagi, Y., Beck, C., Dingwall R., and Nguyen-Van-Tam, J. (2015). Healthcare Workers' Willingness to Work During an Influenza Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses. 9(3):120-130.

The authors reviewed literature through to 2013 that discussed healthcare workers’ willingness to work during an influenza pandemic, and found that willingness to work ranged from 23.1% to 95.8%, depending on the context. Male gender, physicians and nurses, full-time employment, perceived personal safety, awareness of pandemic risk and clinical knowledge of influenza pandemics, role-specific knowledge, pandemic response training, and confidence in personal skills were statistically significantly associated with increased willingness. Childcare obligations were significantly associated with decreased willingness.

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Dawood, F., Iuliano, A., Reed, C., et al. (2012). Estimated Global Mortality Associated with the First 12 Months of 2009 Pandemic Influenza A H1N1 Virus Circulation: A Modelling Study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 12(9):687-695.

The authors estimated more than 200,000 respiratory deaths with more than 83,000 additional cardiovascular deaths worldwide associated with 2009 influenza A H1N1. This mortality estimate is 15 times higher than the number of reported laboratory-confirmed deaths.

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Hsieh, Y., Kelen, G., Dugas, A., et al. (2013). Emergency Physicians' Adherence to Center for Disease Control and Prevention Guidance During the 2009 Influenza A H1N1 Pandemic. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine: Integrating Emergency Care with Population Health. 14(2):191-199.

The authors reviewed all 339 patients with a clinical diagnosis of influenza at a single hospital emergency department from May 2008 to December 2009 to compare patient management pre and during the H1N1 pandemic and to test adherence to H1N1 guidance from the CDC and the American College of Emergency Physicians. They found similar rates of hospital admission, but different clinical presentation patterns during the pandemic period. Diagnostic testing practices were very good or excellent in adherence to guidelines, but suboptimal in antiviral prescription guideline adherence.

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Kunin, M., Engelhard, D., Thomas, S., et al. (2015). Challenges of the Pandemic Response in Primary Care During Pre-Vaccination Period: A Qualitative Study. Israel Journal of Health Policy Research. 4(32).

The authors interviewed 65 primary care physicians in Australia, Israel, and England about their experiences during the 2009 influenza pandemic. Physicians in all three countries perceived difficulties in translating pandemic policies and guidelines into practice. The researchers attributed this to knowledge barriers (high volume of information and lack of time to keep pace, multiple sources of information, guidelines not oriented to primary care), primary care physician doubts about some guidelines, and operational difficulties associated with providing personalized consultations to patients hearing media reporting on policy changes before physicians received official updates from health authorities.

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Lum, H., Mody, L., Levy, C., and Ginde, A. (2014). Pandemic Influenza Plans in Residential Care Facilities. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 62(7):1310-1316.

The authors conducted a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey of the pandemic influenza planning of 2,294 assisted living facilities and personal care homes. They found that more than half did not have a pandemic influenza plan. Facilities that were small, for-profit, and non-chain-affiliated were less likely to have a plan while those with higher staff vaccination rates were more likely to have a plan.

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Martin, V., Castilla, J., Godoy, P., et al. (2016). High Body Mass Index as a Risk Factor for Hospitalization Due to Influenza: A Case-Control Study. Archivos de Bronconeumologia. 52(6):299-307.

The authors conducted a case-control study to determine the association between body mass index and risk of hospitalization due to influenza. The researchers matched laboratory-confirmed hospitalized influenza patients with laboratory-confirmed outpatients and an outpatient control group during the 2009-10 and 2010-11 influenza seasons. They found an approximate five-fold increase in risk of hospitalization for those with a body mass index between 35 and 40 kg/m2 compared to those of normal weight. They also found significantly increased risk of hospitalization for those with a body mass index between 30 and 34.9 kg/m2 who are unvaccinated and under 65 years of age, underscoring the importance of influenza vaccination for these populations.

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Matias, G., Haguinet, F., Lustig, R., et al. (2016). Model Estimates of the Burden of Outpatient Visits Attributable to Influenza in the United States. BMC Infectious Diseases. 16:641.

The authors used statistical modeling on time series data from two medical claims databases to estimate outpatient visits for respiratory diagnoses and otitis media attributable to influenza. For those under age 65, the model estimated approximately 14.5 million outpatient visits for respiratory diagnoses attributable to influenza, with approximately 80% occurring in those age 5 to 49. They also found approximately 2.2 million outpatient visits for otitis media attributable to influenza, with 86% occurring in those under 18 years of age.

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Nguyen, J., Yang, W., Ito, K., et al. (2016). Seasonal Influenza Infections and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality. JAMA Cardiology. 1(3):274-281.

The authors analyzed vital statistics and emergency department visit data for cardiovascular deaths during non-pandemic influenza seasons from 2006 to 2012 in New York City. They found a 2.3% increase in cardiovascular disease mortality, a 2.4% increase in ischemic heart disease mortality, and a 5.5% increase in myocardial infarction mortality in those 65 years and older associated with an increase from the 25th to 75th percentiles in the number of influenza-related emergency department visits in the previous 21 days.

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Rodrigo, C., Leonardi-Bee, J., Nguyen-Van-Tam, J., and Lim, W. (2015). Effect of Corticosteroid Therapy on Influenza-Related Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 212(2):183-194.

The authors reviewed 16 observational studies and found that corticosteroid therapy for presumed influenza-associated complications is associated with increased mortality. The authors also noted that they were unable to identify any clinical trials on the issue, not all studies specified the indications for corticosteroid therapy, and that when doses were specified they were a higher daily dose than typically recommended.

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Shrestha, S., Swerdlow, D., Borse, R., et al. (2011). Estimating the Burden of 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) in the United States (April 2009-April 2010). Clinical Infectious Diseases. 52(suppl_1):S75-S82.

The authors modeled the number of cases, hospitalizations, and deaths due to 2009 H1N1 to address likely underreporting and compared these estimates to those for seasonal influenza. They found that the rates of hospitalizations and deaths among those under 65 were higher than for seasonal influenza while the rates of hospitalization were 75 percent lower and deaths 81 percent lower among those 65 and older in comparison to seasonal influenza.

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Simonsen, K., Hunskaar, S., Sandvik, H., and Rortveit, G. (2013). Capacity and Adaptations of General Practice During an Influenza Pandemic. PLoS One.

This Norwegian study of general practice and primary care doctors on duty in out-of-hours services reviewed consultations for influenza-like illness during the 2009 pandemic in comparison to the 2008-2009 influenza season. In both seasons, the majority of consultations occurred in general practice, but there was a 5.5 fold increase in out-of-hours consultations during the pandemic year.

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Resource Allocation and Management

Ajao, A., Nystrom, S., Koonin, L., et al. (2015). Assessing the Capacity of the US Health Care System to Use Additional Mechanical Ventilators During a Large-Scale Public Health Emergency. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 9(6):634-641.

This study models the number of additional ventilators that could be absorbed by hospitals during the peak of an influenza pandemic.

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Bayram, J., Sauer, L., Catlett, C., et al. (2013). Critical Resources for Hospital Surge Capacity: An Expert Consensus Panel. PLoS Currents.

The authors convened an expert consensus panel representing health providers, administrators, emergency planners, and specialists, and asked them to review four disaster scenarios and prioritize 132 hospital resources. The number of hospital resources considered to be critical varied by scenario: 58 for the pandemic influenza scenario, 51 for radiation exposure, 41 for explosives, and 35 for nerve gas scenario.

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Carias, C., Rainisch, G., Shankar, M., et al. (2015). Potential Demand for Respirators and Surgical Masks During a Hypothetical Influenza Pandemic in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 60(suppl_1):S42-S51.

The authors modeled demand for N95 filtering facepiece respirators and surgical masks during an influenza pandemic under base case, intermediate demand, and maximum demand scenarios. Because the billions of respirators and masks required under all three scenarios would likely exceed supply, the authors suggest the consideration of other strategies, including extended use and reuse of respirators and the use of other types of respirators.

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Linda Lanham Summitt A possibly untapped source of masks for clinical assistance may be our closed universities and schools. Some of them may have masks, cloves, etc. that could be collected and used throughout the emergency. They may also have Millipore filters that could be put inside of surgical mask for added protection and then disposed of easily between clients and replaced. Please someone get this word out and check on it.
3/23/2020 9:41:49 AM

* Fain, B., Viswanathan, K., and Altevogt, B. (2012). Public Engagement on Facilitating Access to Antiviral Medications and Information in an Influenza Pandemic - Workshop Series Summary. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

This report summarizes a series of workshops on the public’s perception of how to facilitate access to antiviral medication and treatment during an influenza pandemic.

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Huang, H., Araz, O., Morton, D., et al. (2017). Stockpiling Ventilators for Influenza Pandemics. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 23(6).

The authors developed a model to determine the optimal local versus central storage allocation of mechanical ventilators based on risk and stockpiling cost. Using data from Texas under mild, moderate, and severe scenarios, they found while central stockpiles may be more cost-effective, they are only advisable when there is little correlation in peak demand among local areas and deployment from a central location is highly reliable.

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Koonin, L. and Hanfling, D. (2013). Broadening Access to Medical Care During a Severe Influenza Pandemic: The CDC Nurse Triage Line Project. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science. 11(1):75-80.

The authors describe the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Nurse Triage Line Project and its goals of using a coordinated network of nurse triage telephone lines during a pandemic to assess the health status of callers, help callers determine the most appropriate site for care, disseminate information, provide clinical advice, and provide access to antiviral medications to those who need it.

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Meltzer, M. and Patel, A. (2017). Stockpiling Ventilators for Influenza Pandemics. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 23(6):914-921.

This commentary on Huang, H., Araz, O., Morton, D., et al.’s Stockpiling Ventilators for Influenza Pandemics offers context for the challenge of estimating surge demand for ventilators during a pandemic. The authors discuss the importance of models like the ones described in the article and identify its strengths and limitations.

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Meltzer, M., Patel, A., Ajao, A., et al. (2015). Estimates of the Demand for Mechanical Ventilation in the US During an Influenza Pandemic. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 60(suppl_1):S52-S57.

The authors created a spreadsheet model to explore potential demand for invasive mechanical ventilation during an influenza pandemic. They used four standardized pandemic scenarios, each with a low and high clinical severity. They found that the number of deaths prevented varied greatly by scenario and was influenced by the shape of the epidemic curve and the effectiveness of ventilation as well as the distribution of ventilators throughout the healthcare system along with trained staff and resources to support their use.

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O'Hagan, J., Wong, K., Campbell, A., et al. (2015). Estimating the United States Demand for Influenza Antivirals and the Effect on Severe Influenza Disease during a Potential Pandemic. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 60 (Suppl 1):S30-41.

Following the detection of a novel influenza strain A (H7N9), the authors modeled the use of antiviral treatment in the U.S. to mitigate severe disease across a range of hypothetical pandemic scenarios. The model included estimates of attack rate, healthcare-seeking behavior, prescription rates, and other related data. Based on these inputs, the total antiviral regimens estimated to be available in the U.S. (as of April 2013) were deemed sufficient to meet treatment needs for the scenarios considered.

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RAND Corporation. (2020). A Mechanism to Reduce Medical Supply Shortfalls During Pandemics. (Added 5/20/2020.)

This report proposes incentivizing regions with low numbers of cases during a pandemic not to hold or acquire unused medical supplies that are needed in regions with high case counts by guaranteeing they will be prioritized to receive supplies when they are needed to managing increasing numbers of cases. A centralized pool of dedicated resources would be available to draw upon as a backstop.

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Spaulding, A., Radi, D., Macleod, H., et al. (2012). Design and Implementation of a Statewide Influenza Nurse Triage Line in Response to Pandemic H1N1 Influenza. Public Health Reports. 127(5): 532-540.

The Minnesota Department of Health developed several tools to support healthcare providers during the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic, including MN FluLine, a nurse triage line, that reached many rural and uninsured residents, and, according to the authors, may have prevented up to 11,000 in-person health-care encounters.

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Watson, S., Chen, Y., Nguyen-Van-Tam, J., et al. (2017). Evidence Synthesis and Decision Modeling to Support Complex Decisions: Stockpiling Neuraminidase Inhibitors for Pandemic Influenza Usage. F1000Research. 5:2293.

The authors designed a decision model to determine whether the benefits of stockpiling antivirals for an influenza pandemic outweigh the negative consequences of not stockpiling. They estimated both the cost-effectiveness benefits as well as the health benefits, which were measured as deaths averted by stockpiling. While they found that the probability of not using a stockpile was greater than using it, stockpiling was justified due to the catastrophic losses that would occur from a severe pandemic without it.

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Zaza, S., Koonin, L., Ajao, A., et al. (2016). A Conceptual Framework for Allocation of Federally Stockpiled Ventilators During Large-Scale Public Health Emergencies. (Registration required.) Health Security. 14(1):1-6.

The authors describe a conceptual framework for the distribution of ventilators stockpiled by the federal government during a large-scale emergency. They identify necessary planning steps to aid in the optimal allocation of ventilators to individual hospitals.

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Vaccines

#Get Vaccinated. (2023). Provider Resources. (Added 12/28/2020.) American Health Care Association and National Center for Assisted Living .

This toolkit contains various resources to support the #GetVaccinated campaign, including talking points, templates, and media materials.

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Association of Immunization Managers. (2021). Vaccine Confidence Toolkit.

This resource page includes links to various materials to help communicate about COVID-19 vaccination.

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Biggerstaff, M., Reed, C., Swerdlow, D., et al. (2015). Estimating the Potential Effects of a Vaccine Program Against an Emerging Influenza Pandemic, United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 60(suppl_1):S20-S29.

The authors modeled the effects of variables including the start time of a vaccination campaign, number of vaccine doses administered per week and allocation by age group, clinical attack rate, case hospitalization ratio, and case fatality ratio, on an influenza pandemic. The timing of the start of the vaccination campaign relative to the start of the pandemic had the greatest effect, with 141,000 to 2.2 million hospitalizations and 11,000 to 281,000 deaths prevented when the vaccination program started prior to the beginning of the pandemic.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Allocating and Targeting Pandemic Influenza Vaccine During an Influenza Pandemic. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This document provides guidance on the allocation of influenza vaccine during the early stages of a pandemic when demand may exceed production capacity. It offers general principles on pandemic vaccination and a framework based on targeted groups and pandemic severity.

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Sheran Kaplan-Hicks This link is broken and does not provide access to this document.
10/15/2019 12:32:50 PM

* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). ACIP Recommendations: Influenza (Flu) Vaccine. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage includes links to current and archived influenza vaccine recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.

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Fitzgerald, T., Kang, Y., Bridges, C., et al. (2016). Integrating Pharmacies into Public Health Program Planning for Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Response. Vaccine. 34(46):5643-5648.

The authors analyzed reporting data from immunization and public health preparedness programs to assess their pandemic planning with pharmacies. They found that most jurisdictions include pharmacies in their pandemic vaccine distribution plans, nearly half have a process to recruit pharmacists as vaccinators, and nearly a third have formal relationships established with pharmacies.

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Li, Z., Swann, J., and Keskinocak, P. (2018). Value of Inventory Information in Allocating a Limited Supply of Influenza Vaccine During a Pandemic. PLOS One. 13(10):e0206293.

The authors describe using a population-based allocation model versus a model based on population plus inventory demand to simulate the value of information on vaccine inventory levels during an influenza pandemic. They find that the population plus inventory approach may reduce the attack rate, decrease the amount of unused vaccine, and maintain or increase the percentage of the population vaccinated, suggesting that greater visibility of the vaccine supply chain would be beneficial.

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Manzoli, L., Ioannidis, J., Flacco, M., et al. (2012). Effectiveness and Harms of Seasonal and Pandemic Influenza Vaccines in Children, Adults and Elderly. Human Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics. 8(7):851-862.

The authors completed an umbrella review and reanalyzed data from 15 previously published meta-analyses to determine how different analyses and study selection criteria could explain differences in findings or interpretations. They found statistically significant efficacy and effectiveness – high for laboratory-confirmed cases in children and adults and modest for clinically-confirmed cases and for the elderly – of seasonal influenza vaccines. They identified a scarcity of data on the efficacy of live-attenuated vaccine in those less than two years old, suboptimal quality of harms data, and a lack of meta-analysis on the effect of H1N1 vaccination on clinical outcomes.

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MotherToBaby. (2024). Fact Sheets: Infections and Vaccines.

These fact sheets can help breastfeeding people and their healthcare providers learn more about the effect of select infections (e.g., COVID-19, Group-A and -B strep, and mpox) and related vaccines on pregnancy and breastmilk.

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Moulia, D., Dopson, S., Vagi, S., et al. (2017). Readiness to Vaccinate Critical Personnel during an Influenza Pandemic, United States, 2015. (Abstract only.) American Journal of Public Health. 107(10):1643-45.

The authors analyzed results from two surveys to assess readiness to vaccinate critical infrastructure personnel during an influenza pandemic. They found that less than half of responding public health preparedness programs had a plan to identify and vaccinate such workers and slightly more than a quarter of immunization programs knew the number of such personnel in their jurisdictions.

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* Noah, D. and Noah, J. (2013). Adapting Global Influenza Management Strategies to Address Emerging Viruses. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 305(2):L108-L117.

The authors provide an overview of influenza and discuss epidemiology and surveillance, perspectives on vaccines and antivirals, and research opportunities related to universal vaccine, alternate vaccine production strategies, novel antiviral development, and continued transmission studies.

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* Saunders-Hastings, P., Quinn Hayes, B., Smith, R., and Krewski, D. (2017). Modelling Community-Control Strategies to Protect Hospital Resources During An Influenza Pandemic in Ottawa, Canada. PLoS One. 12(6).

The authors modeled the effects on hospital capacity in one city of various strategies to control an influenza pandemic. They calculated ranges bounded by no interventions and all interventions for the attack rate, peak acute care hospital capacity, peak intensive care unit capacity, and mortality along with estimated economic burdens. They found vaccination, isolation, and personal protective measures to be the most effective strategies. However, all interventions decreased in effectiveness as transmissibility increased and as the outbreak progressed.

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* Saunders-Hastings, P., Reisman, J., and Krewski, D. (2015). Assessing the State of Knowledge Regarding the Effectiveness of Interventions to Contain Pandemic Influenza Transmission: A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis. PLoS One. 11(12).

This study reviews existing systematic reviews and meta-analyses on pandemic influenza interventions including vaccines, antivirals, personal protective measures, school closures, and traditional Chinese medicine. Pandemic influenza vaccine was found to be protective against infection, but the authors found insufficient evidence for the effectiveness of each of the other interventions in isolation and hypothesized that a combination of interventions would be most effective.

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Schwerzmann, J., Graitcer, S., Jester, B., et al. (2017). Evaluating the Impact of Pharmacies on Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Administration. (Abstract only.) Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 11(5):587-593.

The authors developed a model to estimate the effects of vaccine administration in retail pharmacies. They estimated that nationwide capacity to administer vaccines would increase to 25 million doses per week when retail pharmacies were included and that the time to achieve 80% nationwide vaccination coverage could be reduced by seven weeks.

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U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2020). Vaccine Development – 101. (Added 12/23/2020.) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

This webpage describes the steps that vaccine developers follow when seeking FDA approval of a vaccine.

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Agencies and Organizations

Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response. ASPR's Response to H5N1 Bird Flu.

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Association of State and Territorial Health Officials. Pandemic Influenza.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Information on Bird Flu.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pandemic Influenza.

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Centers for Infectious Disease Research and Policy. Influenza.

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Centers for Infectious Disease Research and Policy. Pandemic Influenza.

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European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Avian Influenza.

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Institute for Diseases and Disaster Management. Tools and Resources. NYC Health + Hospitals.

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National Emerging Special Pathogens Training and Education Center.

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National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Influenza.

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National Library of Medicine Disaster Information Management Research Center. Pandemic Influenza: Preparedness and Response.

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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Avian Influenza.

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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. What is Influenza A Virus in Swine (IAV-S).

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U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Pandemic Influenza.

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U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Seasonal Influenza.

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U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI).

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World Health Organization. Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework.

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World Health Organization. Influenza.

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This ASPR TRACIE Topic Collection was refreshed at the end of 2020. It was comprehensively reviewed in September 2017 by the following subject matter experts (listed in alphabetical order): Eric Alberts, Manager of Emergency Preparedness, Orlando Health; Julie Bulson, DNP, MPA, RN, NE-BC, Director, Emergency Preparedness, Spectrum Health; Matt Gneuhs, Program Manager, Emergency Preparedness and Response, Cincinnati Children’s; Michael Gurnick, Chair, Ashland Branch, Massachusetts MRC Region 4A; John Hick, MD, HHS ASPR, and Hennepin County Medical Center; Jodi Keller, RN, Associate Director of Healthcare System Emergency Preparedness, Central Ohio Trauma System; Lisa Koonin, DrPH, MN, MPH, Deputy Director, Influenza Coordination Unit, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Anita Patel, PharmD, MS, Senior Advisor and Lead, Pandemic Medical Care and Countermeasures, Influenza Coordination Unite, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Terri Postma, MD, Medical Officer, Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services; and Mary Russell, EdD, MSN, Emergency Services, Boca Raton Regional Hospital.

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